Aug 23, · 1. Analyzing the Concept of Recognition. Recognition presupposes a subject of recognition (the recognizer) and an object (the recognized). Before asking what kind of subjects and objects of recognition are possible () this entry discusses the meaning of “recognition” and how it differs from neighboring concepts such as “identification” and “acknowledgment” () We value excellent academic writing and strive to provide outstanding essay writing service each and every time you place an order. We write essays, research papers, term papers, course works, reviews, theses and more, so our primary mission is to help you succeed academically In Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority (), Emmanuel Lévinas said that previous philosophy had reduced the constitutive Other to an object of consciousness, by not preserving its absolute alterity — the innate condition of otherness, by which the Other radically transcends the Self and the totality of the human network, into which the Other is being placed
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In phenomenologythe terms the Other and the Constitutive Other identify the "other" human being, in their differences from the Selfas being a cumulative, constituting factor in the self-image of a person; as acknowledgement of being real ; hence, the Other is dissimilar to and the opposite of the Self, of Us, and of the Same.
The condition and quality of Otherness the characteristics of the Other is the state of being different from and alien to the social identity of a person and to the identity of the Self. and What? of the Other, which are distinct and separate from the Symbolic order of things; from the Real the authentic and unchangeable ; from the æsthetic artbeautytaste ; from political philosophy ; from social norms and social identity ; and from the Self.
Therefore, the condition of Otherness is a person's non-conformity to and with the social norms of society; and Otherness is the condition of disenfranchisement political exclusioneffected either by the State or by the social institutions e.
Therefore, the imposition of Otherness alienates the person labelled as "the Other" from the centre of society, lenin and philosophy and other essays, and places him or her at the margins of society, for being the Other.
The term Othering describes the reductive action of labelling and defining a person as a subaltern nativeas someone who belongs to the socially subordinate category of the Other. The practice of Othering excludes persons who do not fit the norm of the social grouplenin and philosophy and other essays, which is a version of the Self; [7] likewise, in human geographythe practice of othering persons means to exclude and displace them from the social group to the margins of society, where mainstream social norms do not apply to them, for being the Other.
The concept of the Self requires the existence of the constitutive Other as the counterpart entity required for defining the Self ; in the late 18th century, lenin and philosophy and other essays, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel — introduced the concept of the Other as a constituent part of self-consciousness preoccupation with the Self[9] which complements the propositions about self-awareness capacity for introspection proffered by Johann Gottlieb Fichte — Edmund Husserl — applied the concept of the Other as the basis for intersubjectivitylenin and philosophy and other essays, the psychological relations among people.
In Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to PhenomenologyHusserl said that the Other is constituted as an alter egoas an lenin and philosophy and other essays self. As such, the Other person posed and was an epistemological problem—of being only a perception of the lenin and philosophy and other essays of the Self. In Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological OntologyJean-Paul Sartre — applied the dialectic of intersubjectivity to describe how the world is altered by the appearance of the Other, of how the world then appears to be oriented to the Other person, and not to the Self.
The Other appears as a psychological phenomenon in the course lenin and philosophy and other essays a person's life, and not as a radical threat to the existence of the Self.
In that mode, in The Second SexSimone de Beauvoir — applied the concept of Otherness to Hegel's dialectic of the " Lord and Bondsman " Herrschaft und Knechtschaftand found it to be like the dialectic of the Man—Woman relationship, thus a true explanation for society's lenin and philosophy and other essays and mistreatment of women.
The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan — and the philosopher of ethics Emmanuel Levinas — established the contemporary definitions, usages, and applications of the constitutive Other, as the radical counterpart of the Self.
Lacan associated the Other with language and with the symbolic order of things. Levinas associated the Other with the ethical metaphysics of scripture and tradition ; the ethical proposition is that the Other is superior and prior to the Self. In the event, Levinas re-formulated the face-to-face encounter wherein a person is morally responsible to the Other person to include the propositions of Jacques Derrida — about the impossibility of the Other person being an entirely metaphysical pure-presence.
That the Other could be an entity of pure Otherness of alterity personified in a representation created and depicted with language that identifies, describes, and classifies, lenin and philosophy and other essays. The conceptual lenin and philosophy and other essays of the nature of the Other also included Levinas's analysis of the distinction between " the saying and the said "; nonetheless, the nature of the Other retained the priority of ethics over metaphysics. In the psychology of the mind e.
Laingthe Other identifies and refers to the unconscious mindto silenceto insanityand to language "to what is referred and to what is unsaid". Likewise, problems arise from unethical usages of the terms The Other, Otherness, and Othering to reinforce ontological divisions of reality: of beingof becomingand of existence. In Totality and Infinity: An Essay on ExteriorityEmmanuel Lévinas said that previous philosophy had reduced the constitutive Other to an object of consciousness, by not preserving its absolute alterity — the innate condition of otherness, lenin and philosophy and other essays, by which the Other radically lenin and philosophy and other essays the Self and the totality of the human network, into which the Other is being placed.
As a challenge to self-assurance, the existence of the Other is a matter of ethics, because the ethical priority of the Other equals the primacy of ethics over ontology in real life. From that perspective, lenin and philosophy and other essays, Lévinas described the nature of the Other as "insomnia and wakefulness"; an ecstasy an exteriority towards the Other that forever remains beyond any attempt at fully capturing the Other, whose Otherness is infinite; even in the murder of an Other, the Otherness of the lenin and philosophy and other essays remains uncontrolled and not negated.
The infinity of the Other allowed Lévinas to derive other aspects of philosophy and science as secondary to that ethic; thus:. The others that obsess me in the Other do not affect me as examples of the same genus united with my neighbor, by resemblance or common nature, individuations of the human race, or chips off the old block.
The others concern me from the first. Here, fraternity precedes the commonness of a genus. My relationship with the Other as neighbor gives meaning to my relations with all the others. Jacques Derrida said that the absolute alterity of the Other is compromised, because the Other person is other than the Self and the group.
The logic of alterity otherness is especially negative in the realm of human geographywherein the native Other is denied ethical priority as a person with the right to participate in the geopolitical discourse with an empire who decides the colonial fate of the homeland of the Other, lenin and philosophy and other essays.
In that vein, the language of Otherness used in Oriental Studies perpetuates the cultural perspective of the dominantor—dominated relation, which is characteristic of hegemony ; likewise, the sociologic misrepresentation of the feminine as the sexual Other to man reasserts male privilege as the primary voice in social discourse between women and men.
In The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraqthe geographer Derek Gregory said that the U, lenin and philosophy and other essays. government's ideologic answers to questions about reasons for the terrorist attacks against the U.
Bush — rhetorically asked: "Why do they hate us? To build a conceptual framework around a notion of Us-versus-Them is, in effect, to pretend that the principal consideration is epistemological and natural—our civilization is known and accepted, theirs is different and strange—whereas, in fact, lenin and philosophy and other essays, the framework separating us from them is belligerent, constructed, and situational.
The contemporary, post-colonial world system of nation-states with interdependent politics and economies was preceded by the European imperial system of economic and settler colonies in which "the creation and maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationship, usually between states, and often in the form of an empire, [was] based on domination and subordination.
The racialist perspective of the Western world during the 18th and 19th centuries was invented with the Othering of non-white peoples, which also was supported with the fabrications of scientific racismsuch as the pseudo-science of phrenologywhich claimed that, in relation to a white-man's head, the head-size of the non-European Other indicated inferior intelligence; e. the apartheid-era cultural representations of coloured people in South Africa — Consequent to the Holocaust —with documents such as The Race Question and the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discriminationthe United Nations officially declared that racial differences are insignificant to anthropological likeness among human beings.
Despite the UN's factual dismissal of racialismin the U. To the European peoples, imperialism military conquest of non-white peoples, annexation, and economic integration of their countries to the motherland was intellectually justified by among other reasons orientalismthe study and fetishization of the Eastern world as "primitive peoples" requiring modernisation by way of the civilising mission.
Colonial empires were justified and realised with essentialist and reductive representations of people, places, and cultures in books and pictures and fashion, which conflated different cultures and peoples into the binary relation of The Orient and The Occident. Orientalism created the artificial existence of the Western Self and the non—western Lenin and philosophy and other essays. Colonial stability requires the cultural subordination of the non-white Other for transformation into the subaltern native ; a colonised people who facilitate the exploitation of their labourof their lands, and of the natural resources of their country.
The practise of Othering justifies the physical domination and cultural subordination of the native people by degrading them — first from being a national-citizen to being a colonial-subject — and then by displacing them to the periphery of the colony, and of geopolitical enterprise that is imperialism. Using the false dichotomy of "colonial strength" imperial power against "native weakness" military, social, and economicthe coloniser invents the non-white Other in an artificial dominator-dominated relationship that can be resolved only through racialist noblesse obligethe "moral responsibility" that psychologically allows the colonialist Self to believe that lenin and philosophy and other essays is a civilising mission to educate, convert, and then culturally assimilate the Other into the empire — thus transforming the "civilised" Other into the Self.
In establishing a colony, Othering a non-white people allowed the colonisers to physically subdue and "civilise" the natives to establish the hierarchies of domination political and social required for exploiting the subordinated natives and their country. Othering establishes unequal relationships of power between the colonised natives and the colonisers, who believe themselves essentially superior to the natives whom they othered into racial inferiority, as the non-white Other.
The social exclusion function of Othering a person or a social group from mainstream society to the social margins — for being essentially different from the societal norm the plural Self — is a socio-economic function of gender. In a society wherein man—woman heterosexuality is the sexual norm, the Other refers to and identifies lesbians women who love women and gays men who love men as people of same-sex orientation whom society has othered as "sexually deviant" from the norms of binary-gender heterosexuality.
To neutralise such cultural Othering, LGBT communities queer a city, by creating social spaces that use the spatial and temporal plans of the city to allow the LGBT communities free expression of their social identitiese. a boystowna gay-pride paradeetc. The philosopher of feminismCheshire Calhoun identified the female Other as the female-half of the binary-gender relation that is the Man and Woman relation.
The deconstruction of the word Woman the subordinate party in the Man and Woman relation produced a conceptual reconstruction of the female Other as the Woman who exists independently of male definition, as rationalised by patriarchy. That the female Other is a self-aware Woman who is autonomous and independent of the patriarchy's formal subordination of the female sex with the institutional limitations of social conventiontraditionand customary law ; the social subordination of women is communicated denoted and connoted in the sexist usages of the word Woman.
Inthe philosopher of existentialismSimone de Beauvoir applied Hegel 's conception of "the Other" as a constituent part of Self-awareness to describe a male-dominated culture that represents Woman as the sexual Other to Man.
In a patriarchal culture, the Man—Woman relation is society's normative binary-gender relation, wherein the sexual Other is a social minority with lenin and philosophy and other essays least socio-political agencyusually the women of the community, because patriarchal lenin and philosophy and other essays established that "a man represents both the positive and the neutral, as indicated by the common use of [the word] Man to designate human beings in general; whereas [the word] Woman represents only the negative, defined by limiting criteria, without reciprocity" from the first sex, from Man.
InBetty Friedan reported that a woman's social identity is formally established, by the sexual politics of the Ordinate—Subordinate nature of the Man—Woman sexual relation, the social norm in the patriarchal West. When queried about their post-graduate lives, the majority of women interviewed at a university-class reunion, used binary gender language, and referred to and identified themselves by their social roles wife, mother, lover in the private sphere of life; and did not identify themselves by their own achievements job, career, business in the public sphere of life.
Unawares, the women had acted conventionallyand automatically identified and referred to themselves as the social Other to men. Although the nature of the social Other is influenced by the society's social constructs social classsexgenderas a human organisation, society holds the socio-political power to formally change the social relation between the male-defined Self and Womanthe sexual Other, who is not male. In feminist definition, women are the Other to men but not the Other proposed by Hegel and are not existentially defined by masculine demands; and also are the social Other who unknowingly accepts social subjugation as part of subjectivity[34] because the gender identity of lenin and philosophy and other essays is constitutionally different from the gender identity of man.
The harm of Othering is in the asymmetric nature of unequal roles in sexual and gender relations; the inequality arises from the social mechanics of intersubjectivity. That cultural representations of the Other as a metaphor, as a metonym, and as an anthropomorphism are manifestations of the xenophobia inherent to the European historiographies that defined and labelled non—European peoples as the Other who is not the European Self.
Supported by the reductive discourses academic and commercial, geopolitical and military of the empire's dominant ideologythe colonialist misrepresentations of the Other explain the Eastern world to the Western world as a binary relation of native weakness against colonial strength. In the 19th-century historiographies of the Orient as a cultural region, the Orientalists studied only what they said was the high culture languages and literatures, arts and philologies of the Middle East, but did not study that geographic space as a place inhabited by different nations and societies.
the Orient that appears in Orientalism, then, is a system of representations framed by a whole set of forces that brought the Orient into Western learning, Western consciousness, and later, Western empire. If this definition of Orientalism seems more political than not, that is simply because I think Orientalism was, itself, a product of certain political forces and activities.
Orientalism is a school of interpretation whose material happens lenin and philosophy and other essays be the Orient, its civilisations, peoples, and localities. Its objective discoveries — the work of innumerable devoted scholars who edited texts and translated lenin and philosophy and other essays, codified grammars, lenin and philosophy and other essays, wrote dictionaries, reconstructed dead epochs, produced positivistically verifiable learning — are and always have been conditioned by the fact that its lenin and philosophy and other essays, like any truths delivered by language, are embodied in language, and, what is the truth of language?
In so far as The Orient occurred in the existential awareness of the Western world, as a term, The Orient later accrued many meanings and associations, denotations and connotations that did not refer to the real peoples, cultures, and geography of the Eastern world, but to Oriental Studiesthe academic field about The Orient as a word.
In the Eastern world, the field of Occidentalismthe investigation programme and academic curriculum of and about the essence of The West — Europe as a culturally homogenous place — did not exist as a counterpart to Orientalism.
in the Third World, political parties practice Othering with fabricated facts about threat-reports and non-existent threats political, social, military that are meant to politically delegitimise opponent political parties composed of people from the social and ethnic groups designated as the Other in that society.
The Othering of a person or of a social group — by means of an ideal ethnocentricity the ethnic group of the Self that evaluates and assigns negative, cultural meaning to the ethnic Other — is realised through cartography ; [42] : hence, the maps of Western cartographers emphasised and bolstered artificial representations of the national-identities, the natural resources, and the cultures of the native inhabitants, as culturally inferior to the West.
Historically, Western cartography often featured distortions proportionate, proximate, and commercial of places and true distances by placing the cartographer's homeland in the centre of the mapamundi ; these ideas were often utilized to support imperialistic expansion. In contemporary cartography, the polar-perspective maps of the northern hemisphere, drawn by U. cartographers, also frequently feature lenin and philosophy and other essays spatial relations distance, size, mass of and between the U.
and Russia which according to historian Jerome D. Fellman emphasise the perceived inferiority military, cultural, geopolitical of the Russian Other. In Key Concepts in Political GeographyAlison Mountz proposed concrete definitions of the Other as a philosophic concept and as a lenin and philosophy and other essays within phenomenology ; as a noun, lenin and philosophy and other essays, the Other identifies and refers to a person and to a group of persons; as a verb, the Other identifies and refers to a category and a label for persons and things.
Post-colonial scholarship demonstrated that, in pursuit of empire, "the colonizing powers narrated an 'Other' whom they set out to save, dominate, control, [and] civilize.
Counter to the post-colonial perspective of the Other as part of a Dominator—Dominated binary relationship, postmodern philosophy presents the Other and Otherness as phenomenological and ontological progress for Man and Society.
Public knowledge of the social identity of peoples classified as "Outsiders" is de facto acknowledgement of their being realthus they are part of the body politicespecially in the cities. As such, "the post-modern city is a geographical celebration of difference that moves sites once conceived of as 'marginal' to the [social] centre of discussion and analysis" of the human relations between the Outsiders and the Establishment.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Concept in philosophy and psychology. For other uses, see Other disambiguation. Philosophy portal. Hoffmeister, J. Force and the Understanding: Appearance and the Supersensible World: Phenomenology of Spirit 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press. The relation of essential nature to outward manifestation in pure change to infinity as inner difference Analysis of the Text: Phenomenology of Spirit 5 ed.
Louis Althusser: Ideological State Apparatuses vs. Repressive State Apparatuses Pt. 1 of 2
, time: 8:55Vladimir Lenin - Wikipedia
We value excellent academic writing and strive to provide outstanding essay writing service each and every time you place an order. We write essays, research papers, term papers, course works, reviews, theses and more, so our primary mission is to help you succeed academically Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (22 April [O.S. 10 April] – 21 January ), better known by his alias Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as the first and founding head of government of Soviet Russia from to and of the Soviet Union from to Under his administration, Russia, and later the Soviet Union, became a one-party In Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority (), Emmanuel Lévinas said that previous philosophy had reduced the constitutive Other to an object of consciousness, by not preserving its absolute alterity — the innate condition of otherness, by which the Other radically transcends the Self and the totality of the human network, into which the Other is being placed
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